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Abstract

Abstract Transcriptomes of organisms reveal differentiation associated with the use of different habitats. However, this leaves open how much of the observed differentiation can be attributed to genetic differences or to transcriptional plasticity. In this study, we disentangle causes of differential gene expression in larvae of the European fire salamander from the Kottenforst forest in Germany. Larvae inhabit permanent streams and ephemeral ponds and represent an example of a young evolutionary split associated with contrasting ecological conditions. We hypothesized that adaptation towards differences in water temperature plays a role because the thermal regime between stream and pond habitats differs notably. Tissue samples from tail fins of larvae were collected to study gene expression using microarrays. We found ample evidence for differentiation among larvae occupying different habitats in nature with 2,800 of 11,797 genes being differentially expressed. We then quantified transcriptional plasticity towards temperature and genetic differentiation based on controlled temperature laboratory experiments. Gene-by-environment interactions modelling revealed that 28% of the gene expression divergence observed among samples in nature could be attributed to plasticity related to water temperature. Expression patterns of only a small number of 101 genes were affected by the genotype. Our analysis demonstrates that effects of environmental factors must be taken into account to explain variation of gene expression in salamanders in nature. Notwithstanding, it provides first evidence that genetic factors determined gene expression divergence between pond and stream ecotypes and could be involved in adaptive evolution.