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Abstract

Major evolutionary transitions in individuality, at any level of the biological hierarchy, occur when groups participate in Darwinian processes as units of selection in their own right. Identifying transitions in individuality can be problematic because apparent selection at one level of the biological hierarchy may be a by-product of selection occurring at another level. Here we discuss approaches to this “}levels-of-selection{” problem and apply them to a previously published experimental exploration of the evolutionary transition to multicellularity. In these experiments groups of the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens were required to reproduce via life cycles involving soma- and germline-like phases. The rate of transition between the two cell types was a focus of selection, and might be regarded as a property of groups, cells, or even genes. By examining the experimental data under several established philosophical frameworks, we argue that in the Pseudomonas experiments, bacterial groups acquired Darwinian properties sufficient to allow the evolution of traits adaptive at the group level.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.