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Abstract

In 2009, renewed excavations at the Middle Stone Age (MSA) site of Contrebandiers Cave, Morocco, yielded a skull and partial skeleton of a child dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5. While much of the cranium was found shattered, the midface remained largely intact. In this study, we virtually reconstructed the maxilla and quantified its shape using three-dimensional geometric morphometric methods and compared it to an extensive sample of non-adult and adult Eurasian Neanderthals and Homo sapiens spanning the Middle Pleistocene to Holocene. We used developmental simulations to predict the adult shape of the Contrebandiers maxilla by simulating development along three ontogenetic trajectories: Neanderthal, African, and Levantine early H. sapiens and Holocene H. sapiens. Our results confirm the H. sapiens-like morphology of the Contrebandiers fossil. Both shape and size align it with other North African MSA fossils and Late Pleistocene humans from Qafzeh, Israel. Interestingly, the evaluation of the ontogenetic trajectories suggests that during late ontogeny the facial growth pattern of the Contrebandiers and the Qafzeh children is more similar to that of Neanderthals than it is to recent humans. This suggests that the unique facial growth pattern of Homo sapiens post-dated the MSA. This study is an important step in addressing ontogenetic variability in the African MSA, a period characterized by the origins, emergence, and dispersal of our species, but poorly understood because of the fragmentary and scant human fossil record.