date: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z pdf:PDFVersion: 1.4 pdf:docinfo:title: Uncovering hidden opinions: social norms and the expression of xenophobic attitudes xmp:CreatorTool: Adobe InDesign 15.1 (Windows) access_permission:can_print_degraded: true subject: doi: jcac056 European Sociological Review, 9 November 2022 Abstract: Social norms against prejudice are widespread and generally supported by society, yet examples of bigotry are often found. I propose that anti-prejudice norms can quickly erode when individuals are exposed to hate content, therefore, facilitating the expression of prejudice. To test this, participants were invited to participate in an experimental online forum discussing immigration. I compare the comments of participants exposed to xenophobic content to those not exposed. The empirical results show that exposure to hateful content erodes norm compliance: the more hateful content participants could observe, the more hateful their subsequent comments were. The effect is primarily driven by those more likely to hold anti-immigrant views. This points to an ?emboldening effect? whereby prejudiced individuals refrain from expressing prejudiced opinions in the absence of offensive speech. Otherwise, hidden attitudes are revealed. The results confirm that the expression of prejudice is context dependent and that preserving a ?norm environment? requires sustained reinforcement of the norm. Furthermore, the results show that the composition of the population in terms of individual beliefs is paramount for the dynamics of erosion of the social norm. On the whole, these findings can inform effective public strategies against the spread of hate speech and offer a new methodological approach for studying hate speech in online contexts. xmpMM:History:Action: converted language: en-US dc:format: application/pdf; version=1.4 pdf:docinfo:creator_tool: Adobe InDesign 15.1 (Windows) access_permission:fill_in_form: true xmpMM:History:When: 2022-11-09T12:10:30Z pdf:encrypted: false dc:title: Uncovering hidden opinions: social norms and the expression of xenophobic attitudes modified: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z cp:subject: doi: jcac056 European Sociological Review, 9 November 2022 Abstract: Social norms against prejudice are widespread and generally supported by society, yet examples of bigotry are often found. I propose that anti-prejudice norms can quickly erode when individuals are exposed to hate content, therefore, facilitating the expression of prejudice. To test this, participants were invited to participate in an experimental online forum discussing immigration. I compare the comments of participants exposed to xenophobic content to those not exposed. The empirical results show that exposure to hateful content erodes norm compliance: the more hateful content participants could observe, the more hateful their subsequent comments were. The effect is primarily driven by those more likely to hold anti-immigrant views. This points to an ?emboldening effect? whereby prejudiced individuals refrain from expressing prejudiced opinions in the absence of offensive speech. Otherwise, hidden attitudes are revealed. The results confirm that the expression of prejudice is context dependent and that preserving a ?norm environment? requires sustained reinforcement of the norm. Furthermore, the results show that the composition of the population in terms of individual beliefs is paramount for the dynamics of erosion of the social norm. On the whole, these findings can inform effective public strategies against the spread of hate speech and offer a new methodological approach for studying hate speech in online contexts. xmpMM:History:SoftwareAgent: Preflight pdf:docinfo:subject: doi: jcac056 European Sociological Review, 9 November 2022 Abstract: Social norms against prejudice are widespread and generally supported by society, yet examples of bigotry are often found. I propose that anti-prejudice norms can quickly erode when individuals are exposed to hate content, therefore, facilitating the expression of prejudice. To test this, participants were invited to participate in an experimental online forum discussing immigration. I compare the comments of participants exposed to xenophobic content to those not exposed. The empirical results show that exposure to hateful content erodes norm compliance: the more hateful content participants could observe, the more hateful their subsequent comments were. The effect is primarily driven by those more likely to hold anti-immigrant views. This points to an ?emboldening effect? whereby prejudiced individuals refrain from expressing prejudiced opinions in the absence of offensive speech. Otherwise, hidden attitudes are revealed. The results confirm that the expression of prejudice is context dependent and that preserving a ?norm environment? requires sustained reinforcement of the norm. Furthermore, the results show that the composition of the population in terms of individual beliefs is paramount for the dynamics of erosion of the social norm. On the whole, these findings can inform effective public strategies against the spread of hate speech and offer a new methodological approach for studying hate speech in online contexts. xmpMM:History:InstanceID: uuid:c57954e7-38c6-40b9-abd7-e81acc7cad54 pdf:docinfo:creator: Amalia Álvarez-Benjumea meta:author: Amalia Álvarez-Benjumea trapped: False meta:creation-date: 2022-11-09T06:39:53Z created: 2022-11-09T06:39:53Z access_permission:extract_for_accessibility: true Creation-Date: 2022-11-09T06:39:53Z xmpMM:DerivedFrom:DocumentID: xmp.did:48e361cb-fa9d-a949-84bd-8f920abc4f85 Author: Amalia Álvarez-Benjumea producer: Adobe PDF Library 15.0; modified using iTextSharp 4.1.6 by 1T3XT pdf:docinfo:producer: Adobe PDF Library 15.0; modified using iTextSharp 4.1.6 by 1T3XT pdf:unmappedUnicodeCharsPerPage: 0 dc:description: doi: jcac056 European Sociological Review, 9 November 2022 Abstract: Social norms against prejudice are widespread and generally supported by society, yet examples of bigotry are often found. I propose that anti-prejudice norms can quickly erode when individuals are exposed to hate content, therefore, facilitating the expression of prejudice. To test this, participants were invited to participate in an experimental online forum discussing immigration. I compare the comments of participants exposed to xenophobic content to those not exposed. The empirical results show that exposure to hateful content erodes norm compliance: the more hateful content participants could observe, the more hateful their subsequent comments were. The effect is primarily driven by those more likely to hold anti-immigrant views. This points to an ?emboldening effect? whereby prejudiced individuals refrain from expressing prejudiced opinions in the absence of offensive speech. Otherwise, hidden attitudes are revealed. The results confirm that the expression of prejudice is context dependent and that preserving a ?norm environment? requires sustained reinforcement of the norm. Furthermore, the results show that the composition of the population in terms of individual beliefs is paramount for the dynamics of erosion of the social norm. On the whole, these findings can inform effective public strategies against the spread of hate speech and offer a new methodological approach for studying hate speech in online contexts. access_permission:modify_annotations: true dc:creator: Amalia Álvarez-Benjumea description: doi: jcac056 European Sociological Review, 9 November 2022 Abstract: Social norms against prejudice are widespread and generally supported by society, yet examples of bigotry are often found. I propose that anti-prejudice norms can quickly erode when individuals are exposed to hate content, therefore, facilitating the expression of prejudice. To test this, participants were invited to participate in an experimental online forum discussing immigration. I compare the comments of participants exposed to xenophobic content to those not exposed. The empirical results show that exposure to hateful content erodes norm compliance: the more hateful content participants could observe, the more hateful their subsequent comments were. The effect is primarily driven by those more likely to hold anti-immigrant views. This points to an ?emboldening effect? whereby prejudiced individuals refrain from expressing prejudiced opinions in the absence of offensive speech. Otherwise, hidden attitudes are revealed. The results confirm that the expression of prejudice is context dependent and that preserving a ?norm environment? requires sustained reinforcement of the norm. Furthermore, the results show that the composition of the population in terms of individual beliefs is paramount for the dynamics of erosion of the social norm. On the whole, these findings can inform effective public strategies against the spread of hate speech and offer a new methodological approach for studying hate speech in online contexts. dcterms:created: 2022-11-09T06:39:53Z Last-Modified: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z dcterms:modified: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z title: Uncovering hidden opinions: social norms and the expression of xenophobic attitudes xmpMM:DocumentID: xmp.id:87861ed2-391b-fb41-826a-bdffaf15497a Last-Save-Date: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z pdf:docinfo:modified: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z meta:save-date: 2023-03-06T07:49:47Z Content-Type: application/pdf X-Parsed-By: org.apache.tika.parser.DefaultParser creator: Amalia Álvarez-Benjumea dc:language: en-US access_permission:assemble_document: true xmpTPg:NPages: 15 pdf:charsPerPage: 4719 access_permission:extract_content: true access_permission:can_print: true pdf:docinfo:trapped: False xmpMM:DerivedFrom:InstanceID: xmp.iid:af514865-ac78-3740-aa86-aeba59e0ac17 access_permission:can_modify: true pdf:docinfo:created: 2022-11-09T06:39:53Z